CSET Multiple Subjects Subtest 1: Reading Language and Literature Practice Test

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• Which term is a direct comparison not using like or as?
• In emergent reading, how does text typically progress across the page?
• Which language is listed as an example in the material?
• In the sentence 'The warm breeze swept over the yard,' which word is an adjective?
• Which type of pronoun is used to refer to the person who is speaking?
• Which phoneme awareness skill involves recognizing the common sound across different words, such as the /b/ sound in bike, boy, and bell?
• Why is phonemic awareness important?
• A dependent clause that functions as a noun; noun clauses begin with relative pronouns that, which, who, whom, whose or interrogative pronouns: what, when, why, where.
• Which pronoun emphasizes a noun or pronoun (as in 'himself')?
• What is the scientific study of language called?
• Which method involves asking children to answer questions?
• A question asked for effect, not in expectation of a reply.
• Which two brain areas are highlighted as especially involved in language processing?
• What cognitive benefit does fluent reading provide?
• Which sentence contains a prepositional phrase?
• What is the term for the rhythm of speech with pauses and auditory intonation patterns?
• What term describes the tools used by the author to enliven the writing, such as dialogue and alliteration?
• Which strategy helps readers relate new information to what they already know before reading?
• Middle and Late Alphabetic stage involves what?
• In the sentence 'She taught herself to swim,' which word is the reflexive pronoun?
• Which term refers to the collection of rules that includes Phonological, Semantic, Syntactic, Pragmatic, Prosodic, and Idiosyncratic categories?
• Which sentence type is exemplified by 'Although I like to go camping, I haven't had the time to go lately'?
• Which term describes a group of words that expresses a meaning but misses either a Subject or a Verb?
• Which statement is true about print concepts?
• What is typical about language development for children ages 5-7?
• Which theory proposes language acquisition follows reinforcement and conditioning by imitating adults?
• In drama, what term describes the situation that drives the plot and the obstacles between a character and their goal?
• When a child applies the plural form to irregular words as in 'foots' instead of 'feet', this is an example of which phenomenon?
• Which sentence is used as an example of different deep structures yielding different meanings while surface structure stays the same?
• What does human language rely on?
• Which stage occurs around ages 3 to 5 and is almost adult-like?
• Which sentence contains a prepositional phrase?
• Which of the following is not listed as a core property of human language?
• Identify the preposition in the sentence 'The man walked through the doorway'.
• What is the correct definition of a language family as given in the material?
• Which strategy best supports developing language skills?
• Two complete thoughts that are separated by a semicolon or a comma with a conjunction (subject - verb; subject - verb).
• In the sentence 'She stood beside the window,' which word is the preposition?
• Which term refers to the arrangement of a poem's words, including stanza pattern and line length?
• What term describes a clause that cannot stand alone and functions within a sentence as a noun, adjective, or adverb?
• A Phonics Assessment primarily evaluates which skill?
• A humorous imitation of a writer, artist, or genre to poke fun at its style.
• Which statement best describes the universality of linguistic systems across languages?
• Noam Chomsky formulated which theory that language ability is innate?
• Which field emphasizes how language is used in specific situations to accomplish goals?
• Which term refers to the management of language for a specific effect or the planned rhetorical strategy of a poem?
• Which term denotes a form of reasoning in which two statements are made and a conclusion is drawn from them?
• Which option describes an infinitive phrase with modifiers?
• Which stage is characterized by letters representing sounds and reading simple CVC words?
• In formal language theory, what is the name for the set of symbols from which strings of a formal language may be formed?
• What are the three persons of pronouns described as in the material?
• Which statement best defines a noun?
• What is a language family?
• Which term describes how the author’s language reveals attitudes and stance through stylistic choices?
• Which term describes a character with complex personalities?
• In the sentence 'Tom ran quickly to the finish,' which word is an adverb?
• Which term describes a dramatic work with serious content and an unhappy ending?
• Around what age do children typically speak fluently?
• The devices used in effective or persuasive language, such as contrast, repetition, paradox, and sarcasm.
• Which term refers to the study of the sound system of a language and the analysis and classification of its phonemes?
• Which term is listed as a part of speech that functions to connect words in sentences?
• In a series with items separated by commas, or with introductory phrases and parenthetical expressions, which punctuation mark is used?
• Estimates of the number of languages today range roughly between which figures?
• A composition that imitates the style of another piece for comic effect.
• Which term describes a story in which people, things, and events have a second, symbolic meaning?
• Which set of languages is listed as examples in the material?
• Which of the following is a cause of reading comprehension failure related to monitoring and self-evaluation?
• Which term refers to something that is simultaneously itself and a sign of something else?
• Which term is a category like poetry or drama?
• A mild or indirect expression used to avoid bluntness is called what?
• Which term describes an account of a real person's life?
• What term describes a verb ending in -ing used as a noun?
• Which cause describes having undeveloped intentional strategies?
• Which term refers to the author's account of the author's own life, often told from a first-person perspective?
• Which term describes manipulation of the onset sounds in words?
• Which form of writing is generally more amenable to analysis than poetry and often less ambiguous?
• What is the independent reading level defined as in the material?
• A directly expressed comparison; a figure of speech comparing two objects usually with like, as or than.
• Which term describes a play with serious content and an unhappy ending?
• A sentence with one independent clause and at least one dependent clause
• Which term describes the narrative voice or perspective through which a story is told?
• The Alphabetic Principle describes what?
• Which term describes the overall group of storytelling techniques, including point of view, dialogue, and structure?
• Which term is a figurative use of language that compares without using like or as?
• Which of the following is a noun phrase?
• A device or practice that is so common it becomes a recognized mode of expression is called what?
• Which rules study the formation of grammatical sentences and how they are organized?
• In the sentence 'Tom was a quarterback in college', what is the function of the noun 'college'?
• How did language originate?
• Which strategy involves examining pictures to aid understanding?
• What is the term for the rules that govern how morphemes combine to form words such as plurals?
• Which concept explains that there would be a common, basic form for everyone to rely on in communication?
• Which term is used for a story, play, or picture in which characters symbolize ideas and convey a second, hidden meaning?
• Which term describes a direct reference to something outside the text that relies on the reader's recognition?
• Which term describes the noun phrase?
• Which aspects are evaluated in an Oral Reading Inventory besides fluency?
• Which term refers to a reference in a work to something outside the work, especially to a well-known historical or literary event, person, or work?
• Which term describes the tendency of children to extend a word's meaning beyond its typical referents (for example, calling many things 'hat')?
• In the sentence 'The tall man entered the room,' which word is an adjective?
• Which concept includes literal sensory objects, similes and metaphors, and patterns in images?
• Which punctuation mark is a formal introducer meaning 'as follows' and is used sparingly after is, are, was, or were when presenting a series?
• Which term refers to an author's account of his or her own life?
• Which term describes the stage where sentences are primarily composed of nouns and verbs with few function words, i.e., the 'telegraphic' stage?
• Which sentence contains an interjection?
• What expresses a complete thought and can stand by itself as a sentence?
• Which word is a coordinating conjunction?
• Predicting what will happen next is a strategy that helps readers by activating background knowledge and setting a purpose for reading. Which option best represents this practice?
• What term describes the process of relating signs to meanings in language?
• Which method involves repeating sentences to assess language ability?
• Which of the following is NOT listed as a basic component of human language?
• A subordinate clause that modifies a noun or pronoun, usually introduced with a relative pronoun such as that, which, who, whom, or whose, is called an ...
• Which term is defined as 'An abstract underlying structure from which the actual form of a sentence is derived'?
• Piaget described which theory stating that children must develop cognitive skills before acquiring language, in stages?
• Which statement best describes the relationship between decoding and comprehension?
• When analyzing poetry, one question asks whether the meaning is clear. What is this question assessing?
• The devices used in effective or persuasive language. Contrast, repetitions, paradox, understatement, sarcasm, and rhetorical question.
• Identify the preposition in the sentence 'The book rested beside the lamp'.
• Which describes an infinitive phrase?
• Which of the following is a noun phrase?
• Which approach emphasizes interaction between social environment and cognitive processes in language development?
• In the sentence 'Running quickly, Maria finished her race,' the phrase 'Running quickly' is best described as a
• What term describes categories such as poetry, prose, and drama?
• Identify letters, form letters is associated with which assessment?
• Underextending Words occurs when a child uses a general word to refer to one specific item. Which option represents that concept?
• What does a Spelling Inventory primarily help determine?
• Which statement about phonemic awareness is most accurate?
• Which element helps readers understand the poet's attitude toward the subject?
• Which element includes literal sensory objects, and the use of similes and metaphors, and patterns in images?
• Which term refers to the punctuation used in a series, before conjunctions, after introductory phrases, and in other listed positions?
• Which language behavior commonly appears during early childhood as children develop language?
• Which term denotes the underlying structure of a sentence in transformational grammar?
• Nouns can function in a sentence as which of the following?
• Which term describes giving human traits to nonhuman things?
• Which option is a verb phrase?
• Which term refers to the grammatical arrangement of words in sentences and the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language?
• Which statement best captures the Alphabetic Principle?
• A cause is significant language deficiencies.
• Which term refers to the specialized language of a profession or group?
• What term describes the effortless, automatic ability to read words accurately, quickly, and with expression?
• A subordinate clause that modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb and asks the questions where, when, why, or to what extent; begins with a subordinating conjunction such as although, because, if, when, since, though, unless, while, before, as soon as, etc.
• An appositive is a noun phrase along with any phrase or clauses associated with it that renames a noun or pronoun. Which term best fits this description?
• Which statement about vocabulary development in early childhood is supported by the material?
• Which factor mentions inadequate cognitive development and reading experiences?
• Which phoneme awareness skill involves deleting a sound from a word?
• Which term refers to an accurate history of a single person?
• Which of the following is a correlative conjunction?
• Which element is about reading with speed, accuracy, and expression?
• Which rules describe the relationship between symbols and the things they refer to?
• Which activity is commonly used to teach phonological awareness?
• In natural languages, which concept describes multiple meanings of words, phrases, sentences, or passages that context helps resolve?
• In the sentence 'The author who won the prize is here,' which word is the relative pronoun?
• Which term describes the arrangement of materials within a work and the relationship of the parts to the whole?
• Which assessment is explicitly named to measure knowledge of alphabet letters and their forms?
• Which statement best describes language change?
• Which term describes the concept that language choices change with the communicators' relationship and cultural differences?
• What is the main thought expressed by a work?
• Which stage is described as emergent readers using visual cues and progressing left to right but not yet linking letters to sounds?
• Which term describes language that means exactly what it says, in contrast to natural language?
• What term describes the manner in which an author expresses his or her attitude; the intonation of the voice that expresses meaning?
• Which term describes the early internal dialogue that starts as external self-talk and guides behavior?
• In language development, which term refers to beliefs or judgments based on personal perspective?
• Which of the following is a characteristic of good readers that involves applying and synthesizing knowledge beyond the text?
• Which term is the central idea that a literary work conveys?
• A cause is deficient memory capacity and functioning.
• In the word 'flip', what is the onset?
• Which term describes the underlying meaning of a sentence separate from its spoken form?
• Which component is described as the grammatical arrangement of words in sentences and the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language?
• Which phoneme awareness skill involves recognizing the same ending sound that rhymes in different words?
• Why is vocabulary important to reading?
• The teacher says a word and then instructs students to repeat the word without a sound.
• An Oral Reading Inventory provides information about which aspects?
• Which form of language emphasizes sound, rhythm, and emotional effect, often with deliberate ambiguity?
• In the word 'pop', how many phonemes are there?
• Which punctuation mark is used to join independent clauses or to create lists requiring description?
• Which term describes a system of rules and structures that governs how words and morphemes are combined to form phrases and utterances?
• Relating to the experiences of the characters helps readers connect with the story. Which action describes this practice?
• Which pronoun is formed like intensive pronouns and shows that the subject acts upon itself (as in 'Tom hurt himself')?
• Which approach describes language development as a complex interaction of linguistic, social, and cognitive influences?
• What describes Static Characters in a narrative?
• After collecting data from children or their parents, researchers typically group the data into measures of which of the following?
• Which concept explains how languages evolve over time and can be studied by comparing languages to infer ancestral traits?
• Which rules describe the appropriate word choice based on relationships and cultural differences?
• What is the unifying idea that recurs in a literary or artistic work?
• Which term describes a sound that can be stretched without distortion?
• Semiosis refers to what process?
• In the example 'Tom threw Sue, the football', which word is the indirect object?
• Which rules are used in social communication and depend on the context of the situation?
• What term describes the system of rules by which words and phrases are arranged to make meaningful statements?
• Which term refers to a story designed to teach a principle or moral?
• Which term describes turning a word such as cat into hat by substituting one phoneme?
• What skill involves recognizing and manipulating sounds in spoken language, such as blending sounds to form words?
• A cause is deficient word recognition skills.
• Which statement about phonemes is true?
• Which language family includes Swahili, Zulu, and Shona?
• Under universality of linguistic structures, which statement is listed?
• What term includes the gerund, its object, and its modifiers?
• Which language family includes Arabic, Amharic, and Hebrew?
• A statement that can be verified by research is called?
• Which term means not figurative; literal language?
• Contains a subject and a verb, but it is characterized as beginning with a dependent marker word (ie: although, despite, while, because, etc.) and therefore cannot stand by itself as a complete sentence.
• Which concept explains how linguists reconstruct the history of language evolution by comparing modern languages to infer ancestral traits?
• Any of several possible vantage points from which the story is told. Omniscient, limited to a single character, limited to several characters, first person/third person.
• Which term describes a statement that seems self-contradictory but is true?
• What is the term for the developmental continuum of phonemic awareness skills?
• The theory associated with innate language capacity and universal grammar is which?
• In early childhood, children may say 'foots' instead of 'feet' as they learn past tenses and plurals. What is this phenomenon called?
• Which figure of speech involves a direct comparison without using 'like' or 'as'?
• What term describes adults modifying speech patterns to help children learn language, using higher pitch and simpler sentences?
• How do languages change over time?
• Which term describes the vantage point of a story where the narrator can know, see, and report whatever he or she chooses?
• Which component renames a noun or pronoun and sits next to it?
• A child learns a new word after only one exposure and applies it to related contexts; this illustrates which concept?
• Which method involves recording and transcribing what children say?
• Which approach teaches students to match sounds to letters and blend sounds to read unknown words?
• Which term refers to a reference to something literary, mythological, or historical outside the work that the reader is expected to recognize?
• Which sentence demonstrates a different surface structure from 'The boy will read the book' but shares the same deep structure?
• Which type of conjunction links dependent clauses to independent clauses?
• In the sentence 'The running dog chased the ball,' the word 'running' functions as a
• Which sentence contains a verb phrase (with helping verbs) rather than a simple verb?
• What term refers to the theme, meaning, or position that a writer undertakes to prove or support?
• Which activity best develops phonemic awareness by identifying rhyming words?
• Which term describes a noun phrase that includes a gerund and its object?
• Which term is a story designed to convey a moral or lesson?
• Which activity best demonstrates segmenting a word into its phonemes?
• Which statement best defines comprehension?
• A verb that functions as an adjective usually by adding -ing; example: A RUNNING horse.
• Which rules describe the rhythm, volume, pitch, tempo, and stress used during a conversation?
• In the methods for studying language acquisition, habituation is used as what type of procedure?
• Which theory would most likely argue that language is learned primarily through reinforcement and deliberate practice?
• Which sentence type contains one independent clause and at least one dependent clause, as in 'While traveling to the store, I saw my friend'?
• Which of the following is a recommended pre-reading strategy?
• How do humans acquire language?
• Which term refers to writing that uses figurative language such as metaphors and similes?
• Which skill is measured by High Frequency Word Recognition assessments?
• Which set of rules focuses on language use in social contexts and depends on culture and relationships?
• Which phrase includes the participle, its modifier, and its objects? Example: The child, FLASHING A MISCHIEVOUS SMILE, turned and walked away.
• In the sentence 'The old man who lives next door is very nice,' which word is the relative pronoun?
• What is the purpose of a Phonemic Awareness Assessment?
• Which term denotes the arrangement of the different parts of a work to create a coherent whole?
• Which process involves using context to deduce a word's meaning, with nouns typically faster to fast-map than verbs?
• What term describes a writer's word choice?
• Which element focuses on letter-sound relationships and decoding words?
• What term refers to the Subject and all its modifiers? Example: The little, fluffy kitten.
• Which of the following is a social use of language?
• Which sequence shows the typical order of early language development from earliest to latest?
• What term describes a speech in which a character who is alone speaks his or her thoughts aloud?
• A figurative use of language that endows nonhumans with human characteristics.
• Which word in the sentence 'The book that you gave me is excellent' is the relative pronoun?
• In the word 'sat', the rime is which of the following?
• Which theory emphasizes that language development results from the interaction of linguistic rules, social context, and cognitive development?
• A sentence containing a subject and predicate; an independent clause. Example: John catches the ball.
• What term refers to the smallest meaning-bearing units in a language?
• Which phoneme awareness skill involves blending individual sounds to form a word?
• In the sentence 'Carla spoke softly during the presentation,' which word is an adverb?
• Which pronoun category includes words such as 'anybody', 'something', and 'none'?
• Which phoneme awareness skill involves recognizing the initial sound in a word, such as the first sound in 'paste'?
• Which concept explains that two sentences can share the same deep structure but have different surface structures?
• Which of the following is a key element in reading that involves recognizing and manipulating sounds?
• Which term involves the implied meaning or associations of a word?
• Which term means a combination of opposites, the union of contradictory terms?
• What term describes the meaning of a computer program that is unambiguous and literal, understood by analyzing tokens and structure?
• What is typical of infant language development in the first year?
• Which statement best describes language development skills for interaction?
• Which term refers to the combination of opposite ideas in a single expression?
• What term describes thinking about one's own thinking and evaluating the effectiveness of learning strategies?
• Which period is described as infants and early toddlers focusing on cooing and babbling with phonemes?
• What are the social and cultural uses of Language?
• Which sentence uses a simple verb (not a verb phrase)?
• A figure of speech that involves deliberate exaggeration?
• The background to a story; the physical location of a play, story or novel.
• In the sentence 'Tom was a quarterback', what function does the noun phrase 'a quarterback' serve?
• Vocabulary development is achieved through which approaches?
• Which term refers to the methods involved in telling a story, such as point of view, manipulation of time, dialogue, and interior monologue?
• Which element involves understanding what the text means as a whole?
• A statement that seems self-contradictory but is actually true.
• Which one-word expression is an example of a holophrase?
• In formal language theory, the alphabet is defined as which of the following?
• The separation of words into phonemes is called what?
• Identify the preposition in the sentence 'The dog ran toward the gate'.
• Which term describes the emotional, songlike quality of language?
• Which term means songlike; emotionally expressive?
• Which of the following is an infinitive phrase?
• Which term refers to the tokens such as letters and punctuation that make up language?
• What figure of speech involves a direct comparison using 'like' or 'as'?
• Which term describes the central driver of a drama's plot, focusing on the obstacle between a character and their objective?
• The ability to hear, identify, and manipulate the individual sounds (phonemes) in oral language is called?
• The dictionary meaning of a word is called its what?
• Which element concerns word meaning and the mental lexicon?
• Which are the core properties of human language?
• In toddler language development, what is typical between 12-24 months?
• A statement expressing a personal view is called?
• The sensory details and images a text creates are called what?
• Which theory would emphasize stages of cognitive development as prerequisites for language?
• In alphabetic writing systems, letters represent sounds or phonemes. What are these sounds called?
• Which term is used to describe words that replace nouns?
• In language development, which term refers to statements that are supported by data and research?
• Which term refers to recognizing common words by sight without decoding?
• The emotion being expressed in a poem is called what?
• Which study focuses on the formation and structure of words?
• A sentence that contains at least two independent clauses and one dependent clause
• Which term refers to a line of reasoning formed by two premises and a conclusion?
• Which term means the mode of expression in language, the characteristic manner of expression of an author?
• Which term refers to the events of a story as they unfold, leading to a resolution?
• The phrase 'FLASHING A MISCHIEVOUS SMILE' is an example of which type of phrase?
• Which pronoun category includes words like 'This', 'That', 'These', and 'Those'?
• Which term describes a writer's or speaker's stance toward the subject, influencing how information is presented?
• What is the term for the smallest linguistic unit that has a meaning or grammatical function?
• What does it mean for a language to be conventional?
• Which phoneme awareness skill involves changing one phoneme to create a new word?
• Which of the following is a strategies used in ESL instruction?
• Which method involves making judgments about grammar to assess language knowledge?
• Which term is a reference in a work to something outside the work, often to a well-known historical or literary event, person, or work?
• Which action is described as part of evaluation?
• Language use is deeply entrenched in which aspect of human society?
• Which of the following shows the phoneme sequence for the word 'sun' as given?
• Which term describes a character that has only a few distinct traits and does not change much?
• Which method involves showing children pictures of toys along with their names?
• Which term refers to a figure of speech in which natural sounds are imitated in the sounds of words, such as buzz or hiss?
• Which term describes a narrative in which people, things, and events have another meaning beyond the literal surface?
• According to the material, vocabulary includes which of the following?
• In the sentence 'They prepared themselves for the game,' which word is a reflexive pronoun?
• What is language?
• In the sentence 'Tom ran rapidly across the field,' which word is an adverb?
• What is the process of blending individual phonemes to form a spoken word?
• Which component is the system of meanings expressed by words and phrases?
• Which language family includes Mandarin Chinese and Cantonese?
• Which phase involves recognizing phonograms and common spelling chunks?
• Which early speech stage is characterized by speech like a telegram, using mostly nouns and verbs and omitting auxiliary words?
• Which theory is most associated with learning through reinforcement and imitation of adults?
• What is an expression that includes a subject and predicate but does not constitute a complete sentence?
• Which of the following is an ESL strategy to help learners access content more easily?
• Approximately how many spellings are used to represent sounds in English?
• Language that uses figures of speech such as metaphors and similes is described as what?
• What is the term for the smallest unit of sound that affects the meaning of speech?
• Another cause is insufficient exposure and practice.
• Which term is associated with the description 'Governs how symbols are used to form sequences known as words or morphemes'?
• Which phoneme awareness skill involves segmenting a spoken word into its individual sounds?
• Which term describes breaking a spoken word into its individual sounds?
• Which term refers to multiple meanings of words or passages, often requiring context to resolve?
• Which stage is characterized by telegraphic speech such as 'Mama sit down' and 'Papa's doing'?
• Writing that seeks to arouse a reader's disapproval of an object by ridicule. Usually comedy that exposes errors with an eye to correcting vice and folly.
• How many phonemes are in the word 'sun' according to the material?
• In the sentence 'Tom threw the football across the yard', what is the role of 'the football'?
• Which word in the sentence 'The cookies are inside the jar' functions as a preposition?
• Which term describes a figure of speech in which intended meaning differs from the literal meaning?
• Which statement is typical of early childhood language development around ages 3-4?
• Which term describes the person telling the story, who can be in the 1st, 2nd, or 3rd person?
• Which skill is described when students hear separate sounds and blend them to form a word?
• Which system governs how symbols are used to form sequences known as words or morphemes?
• One cause of reading comprehension failure is inadequate instruction.
• Which skill is associated with phonemic awareness?
• What term describes children's self-directed speech used to guide behavior, which can later become inner speech?
• Which category includes alphabet knowledge, concepts about print, phonemic awareness, phonics, high-frequency word recognition, oral reading inventory, and spelling inventory?
• The implications or suggested meaning of a word beyond its literal definition is known as what?
• Which rules describe the systematic relationship between sounds?
• Which term refers to infants repeating sounds that are reinforced, a form of learning through repetition?
• How many different kinds of pronouns are identified in the material?
• Which sentence contains an interjection?
• Which approach is associated with innate structures and rules governing language?
• Which component is the system of rules by which words and phrases are arranged to make meaningful statements, including how word order marks grammatical functions?
• Where is language processed in the brain?
• Which term refers to the type or category of a literary work, such as poetry, essay, short story, or drama?
• The interrelated actions of a play or a novel that move to a climax and final resolution.
• What is the term for the part of a sentence that tells who or what the subject is doing and contains a verb?
• Which term is the deliberate exaggeration used for emphasis?
• What describes Dynamic Characters in a narrative?
• In the word 'sat', the onset is what?
• Which term describes the part of a syllable that comes before the vowel?
• Which term describes a sentence with two independent clauses and no dependent clause?
• What is the term for a single-word utterance that conveys an entire sentence's meaning?
• What term describes specialized language used by doctors or lawyers when communicating with other professionals?
• Which term is used when a speaker or writer breaks off and directs speech to an absent person, an inanimate object, or abstract quality?
• Which term denotes a speaker's, author's, or character's disposition toward or opinion of a subject?
• Which factor refers to unfamiliarity with text features and task demands?
• What does redundancy mean in the context of language?